Extended Abstract

Introduction

The "Right to the City" is increasingly recognized as a fundamental social and urban entitlement that guarantees all urban dwellers—regardless of socio-economic status, gender, or ethnicity—equal and unfettered access to urban resources, services, and public spaces. Originally conceptualized by Henri Lefebvre and later elaborated by David Harvey et al., the right to the city goes beyond mere access. It encapsulates active participation in shaping urban life and governance. In recent years, this right has been the subject of extensive research, especially in the context of marginalized groups and urban inequality. Among the various axes of marginalization, gender stands out as a particularly critical and complex determinant. In many societies, women continue to experience systematic barriers that limit their freedom of movement, access to services, and ability to engage in civic life. The city of Ahvaz, located in southwestern Iran, serves as a compelling case study for exploring these issues. As one of the most populous and economically significant cities in the region, Ahvaz exhibits remarkable inequalities across its urban fabric. These disparities manifest not only in the infrastructure and amenities but also in access to rights and opportunities, particularly along gender lines. Women in Ahvaz often encounter multifaceted challenges—from inadequate public transportation and limited safety in public spaces to underrepresentation in decision-making issues. These conditions vary widely across municipal districts, each shaped by distinct socio-economic, cultural, and infrastructural characteristics. Given the complexity of these socio-spatial dynamics, this study aimed to conduct a quantitative assessment of gender-based discrimination in the realization of the right to the city. In particular, the study tried to understand how this right is exercised differently by men and women across advantaged, semi-advantaged, and deprived urban districts. The research is guided by three central questions: 1) How does 
gender affect access to the right to the city?; 2) What role does the category of urban space play?; and 3) Is there a significant interaction between gender and urban environment in shaping this right?
 

Method

This study employed a quantitative, quasi-experimental research design to capture variations in the right to the city across gender and spatial categories. The research was conducted across the eight municipal districts of Ahvaz, encompassing a diverse population of over one million residents. A stratified quota sampling technique was utilized to ensure representation from all districts and both genders, resulting in a sample size of 724 individuals, including 384 women and 340 men, all of whom were aged 12 years or older and had lived in their respective districts for at least five years. Data were collected through a researcher-designed questionnaire comprising 84 items divided into four core dimensions: 1) participation in urban governance; 2) allocation and use of urban spaces; 3) urban security; and 4) social support systems. Responses were recorded using a four-point Likert scale, allowing for nuanced analysis of perceptions and experiences. The questionnaire underwent a rigorous validation process, with face and content validity assessed by a panel of experts in urban planning and sociology. Data analysis was conducted in two stages. First, correspondence analysis was used to classify the eight districts into three distinct spatial categories based on indices of the right to the city. This classification enabled the researchers to group districts as advantaged, semi-advantaged, or deprived. In the second stage, a two-way ANOVA was employed to examine the main effects of gender and urban space type, as well as their interaction impact on the dependent variable—the perceived right to the city.
 

Results

Correspondence analysis revealed that districts 3 and 8 fall into the advantaged category, districts 1 and 4 are semi-advantaged, and districts 2, 5, 6, and 7 are deprived. The two-way ANOVA showed statistically significant differences in the right to the city across both gender and urban space. Men reported an average score of 30.5, while women scored significantly lower at 25.88, indicating a clear gender-based disparity. The type of urban space also had a marked influence: advantaged districts scored approximately 34 points higher than deprived ones. Notably, the interaction effect was significant, with gender disparities being more pronounced in advantaged and semi-advantaged areas but narrowing in deprived districts, possibly due to uniformly limited access for all residents regardless of gender.
 

Discussion and Conclusion

The findings highlight deep-seated gender disparities embedded within the spatial and governance structures of Ahvaz. These disparities are most acute in better-off districts where expectations of equality may be higher but are not fulfilled due to entrenched social norms and infrastructural gaps. Women face heightened restrictions related to cultural conventions, safety concerns, and limited mobility, all of which compromise 
their urban citizenship. The study underscores the urgency of gender-sensitive urban policy,